The Observatory

Civics & History: the record

What did we believe? What actually happened?

Descend into the cases ↓

Dozens of moments in American history, studied one at a time from the original record: the laws, the court opinions, the reports, and the people who were there.

These are preliminary studies, not final verdicts. A "Sources checked" date records source work. It does not by itself identify a human reviewer or establish independent review. Read each page's limitations.

The cases examine what happened, the evidence, objections, and what would change the conclusions. Source links, claim tables, human review records and dated correction histories are still being completed. The research methodology working draft sets out the proposed standard. It does not establish that every case meets it.

The first cases ask one question: when Americans were shut out of the vote, the jury box or the courthouse, what happened to them?

Case 01 · Public integrity · 1982 to 1993Iran-Contra (secret arms sales and contra support, 1982 to 1993)Secret Iran arms sales and contra support defied congressional limits. Fourteen were charged, eleven convicted, six pardoned.Case 02 · Public integrity · 1972 to 1974Watergate (burglary, cover-up and resignation, 1972 to 1974)A burglary cover-up was exposed by tapes and courts. It ended in a resignation and a pardon.Case 03 · Environment · 1930s to 1940sDust Bowl and soil conservation (U.S. Great Plains, 1930s and after)Drought and plowing caused the dust storms. A 1935 law and landowner-voted districts followed, while tenants lost out.Case 04 · Public programs · 1935Who the 1935 Social Security Act Left OutThe old-age insurance law left out farm and household workers. Who were they, and who had a vote?Case 05 · Environment · 1970 to 1990Clean Air Act (United States, 1955 to 1990, centered on 1970)A near-unanimous 1970 law set health-based air standards and citizen suits. Costs and exposure fell unevenly.Case 06 · Public integrity · 1967 to 1973The Pentagon Papers (secret Vietnam study published, 1967 to 1973)A secret Vietnam study was published, the Court refused to block it, and the leaker's case collapsed.Case 07 · Rights · 1975 to 1976The Church Committee (Senate Select Committee on Intelligence Activities, 1975 to 1976)A Senate committee opened the files on surveillance at home. Who was watched, and what changed.Case 08 · Rights · 1942 to 1988Japanese American Incarceration (1942 to 1988)About 120,000 people were removed without a hearing, most of them citizens. Redress took 46 years.Case 09 · Public programs · 1944The GI Bill of 1944 (Servicemen's Readjustment Act)One of the largest investments in ordinary Americans. Why it reached some veterans and not others.Case 10 · Public integrity · 2002 to 2008Iraq WMD intelligence (United States, 2002 to 2008)Congress voted on a classified 2002 estimate. Later reviews found it overstated, and disagreed on blame.Case 11 · Public programs · 2008 to 20232008 financial rescue and TARP (United States, 2008 to 2023)Congress passed a $700 billion rescue in two weeks. Oversight bodies later exposed costs and disclosure gaps.Case 12 · Environment · 2014 to 2023Flint water crisis (Flint, Michigan, 2014 to 2023)Unelected managers switched Flint's water. Residents exposed the lead over state denials. Prosecutions ended without convictions.Case 13 · Labor and land · 1917Green Corn Rebellion (Seminole, Pontotoc and Hughes Counties, Oklahoma, August 1917)Oklahoma tenant farmers rose against the draft. How many were convicted is disputed: 86 to 175.Case 14 · Labor and land · 1914Ludlow Massacre (Las Animas County, Colorado, April 20, 1914)Miners asked Colorado to enforce its own laws. The strike ended in fire at a tent colony.Case 15 · Rights · 1921 onwardTulsa Race Massacre and Greenwood (1921 onward)Thirty-five blocks burned. Every path to repair was tried. Here is what happened to each one.Case 16 · Rights · 1920sOsage Murders and Guardianships (Osage County, Oklahoma, 1920s)Oil made the Osage rich on paper. The law gave control of the money to someone else.Case 17 · Rights · 1864Sand Creek Massacre (Colorado Territory, November 29, 1864)A camp told it was safe was attacked at dawn. Three inquiries condemned it. No one was punished.Case 18 · Labor and land · 1921Battle of Blair Mountain (Logan County, West Virginia, 1921)Coal companies paid the sheriff. Thousands of miners marched. The Army came.Case 19 · Rights · 1919Elaine Massacre (Phillips County, Arkansas, 1919)Sharecroppers met to hire a lawyer. What followed reached the Supreme Court.Case 20 · Public health · 1930 to 1936Hawks Nest Tunnel disaster (Fayette County, West Virginia, 1930 to 1936)Silica dust in a tunnel killed an uncertain number of mostly Black workers. A 1936 inquiry could not compel testimony.Case 21 · Public programs · 1932The Bonus Army (Washington, D.C., 1932)Veterans came to Washington to ask for money they were promised. They were driven out with tanks.Case 22 · Public health · 1932 to 1972U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee (Macon County, Alabama, 1932 to 1972)For forty years, a federal agency watched men with syphilis go untreated.Case 23 · Environment · 1942 to 2004Love Canal (Niagara Falls, New York, 1942 to 2004)Chemical waste was buried under a school and homes. Residents' organizing in 1978 led to emergencies and Superfund.Case 24 · Public programs · 1935 to 1994Rural Electrification Administration (United States, 1935 to 1994)Federal loans electrified nearly all farms through cooperatives. Co-op voting later failed Black members.Case 25 · Public integrity · 1978 to 1982Abscam (FBI sting of public officials, 1978 to 1982)An FBI sting put cash in front of members of Congress on camera. Who took it, who did not, and why it ended.Case 26 · Public health · 1908 to 2012Milk pasteurization and dairy safety (United States, 1890s to 2012 and after)Cities mandated pasteurization from 1908 and outbreaks fell. The causes, and the raw-milk choice, are still debated.Case 27 · Public health · 1952 to 2022U.S. polio vaccination campaigns (1952 to 2022)A charity-funded vaccine, the 1955 Cutter failure, a federal funding fight, and polio's fall.Case 28 · Public health · 1992 to 2016Mandatory folic-acid grain fortification (United States, 1992 to 2016)The FDA required folic acid in grain products from 1998. Birth defects fell. Questions on B12, cancer and access remain.Case 29 · Public programs · 1989 to 2026Vaccines for Children program (United States, 1989 to 2026)Free vaccines for eligible children after the 1989 measles surge. Large modeled benefits, audit gaps, and coverage that depends on a committee.Case 30 · Public health · 2003 to 2026PEPFAR HIV/AIDS response (United States and partner countries, 2003 to 2026)US-funded HIV treatment abroad. The program claims 26 million lives saved. Outside evidence is mixed, and 2025 brought disruption.Case 31 · Environment · 1973 to 1996Leaded-gasoline phaseout (United States, 1923 to 2021)Lead came out of US road fuel from 1973 to 1996. Blood lead fell, but other sources and unequal exposure remain.Case 32 · Environment · 1990 to 2012Acid Rain Program and sulfur trading (United States, 1990 to 2012)Congress capped power plant sulfur dioxide with tradable permits. Costs fell short of forecasts, but some eastern areas absorbed pollution.Case 33 · Environment · 1974 to 2022Montreal Protocol and U.S. ozone regulations (1974 to 2022)The Senate approved the ozone treaty 83 to 0. Chlorine is falling, but costs and smuggling remain.Case 34 · Environment · 1917 to 2021Bald eagle recovery and wildlife protections (lower 48 states, 1917 to 2021)Eagles rebounded from a few hundred pairs to over 71,000 after several decisions. Lead poisoning is still a threat.Case 35 · Environment · 1987 to 2026Clean Water Act Section 319 Watershed Restoration (United States, 1987 to 2026)Grants for farm and street runoff. EPA counts over 1,195 restorations, but reviews found slow, uneven progress.Case 36 · Labor and land · 1933 to 1942Civilian Conservation Corps (United States, 1933 to 1942)Three million young men worked on forests and parks, in camps mostly segregated with Black enrollment capped.Case 37 · Public programs · 1972 to 2026WIC Nutrition Assistance (United States, 1972 to 2026)Food and health help for mothers and young children. The benefits are real, but about 44 percent of eligible people go unserved.Case 38 · Public programs · 1975 to 2025Earned Income Tax Credit (United States, 1975 to 2025)A work credit for low earners lifts millions above poverty. Errors, missed claims and a thin childless credit persist.Case 39 · Public programs · 1997 to 2025Children's Health Insurance Program, CHIP (United States, 1997 to 2025)Children's insurance cut uninsured rates. Funding stayed short-term, vetoes came in 2007, and crowd-out is disputed.Case 40 · Public programs · 1946 to 2025National School Lunch Program (United States, 1946 to 2025)The federal lunch program reached 30 million children. Early racial gaps, cuts, debt and unclear effects remain.Case 41 · Public programs · 1939 to 2026Food Stamp Program / SNAP (United States, 1939 to 2026)Food stamps became permanent law in 1964. Benefits, errors, fraud estimates, work rules and exclusion remain disputed.Case 42 · Public programs · 1965 to 2026Neighborhood and community health centers (United States, 1965 to 2026)Two 1965 pilot clinics became a national network serving over 32 million. Outcome evidence and funding stability are mixed.Case 43 · Public programs · 1896 to 1930Rural Free Delivery mail service (United States, 1892 to 1930)Farm mail delivery began in 1896, became permanent in 1902, and reshaped post offices, roads and politics.Case 44 · Public programs · 1946 to 1997Hill-Burton hospital construction grants (United States, 1946 to 1997)Federal money built thousands of hospitals but allowed separate wards by race until a 1963 court ruling.Case 45 · Public health · 1966 to 2020sFederal auto safety standards and seat-belt adoption (United States, 1966 to 2020s)Federal vehicle standards and state belt laws cut deaths per mile, though no single law explains it.Case 46 · Public programs · 1996 to 2025Schools and Libraries E-rate internet discounts (United States, 1996 to 2025)Discounted internet for schools and libraries raised access. Audits found fraud and results were hard to measure.Case 47 · Rights · 1972 to todayTitle IX and girls' school athletics (United States, 1972 to today)Girls' high school sports grew from 294,015 to over 3.2 million. Enforcement was slow and men's team cuts are disputed.Case 48 · Rights · 2013 to 2026Colorado's all-mail voting transition (Colorado, 2013 to 2026)Colorado mailed every voter a ballot in 2013. Turnout rose, but signature rejections hit young voters hardest.Case 49 · Rights · 1984 to 2026Civil asset forfeiture (United States, 1984 to 2026)Agencies can seize property tied to crime without convicting the owner. Courts and states have tightened the rules, and sheriffs and reformers still disagree.Case 50 · Public health · 1914 to 2023U.S. Drug Policy and Mandatory Minimums, the Long Record (United States, 1619 to 2023)Federal drug law grew from 1914 tax rules into scheduling, a dedicated agency and fixed minimums, with documented crack and powder gaps.Case 51 · Labor and land · 1825 to 2023Private prisons and the history of prison labor (United States, 1825 to 2023)States leased prisoners to firms from the 1820s. Alabama ended it in 1928. Private prisons now hold about 7 percent of prisoners.Case 52 · Rights · 1970 to 2024Plea bargaining (United States, 1970 to 2024)Over 97 percent of federal cases end in pleas. Courts regulate bargaining while critics and defenders dispute a trial penalty.Case 53 · Rights · 1967 to 2025Qualified immunity (United States, 1967 to 2025)Courts shield officials from damages unless the law was clearly established. Studies, state laws and federal bills dispute whether that protects or excuses.Case 54 · Public programs · 1955 to 1999Deinstitutionalization of mental health care (United States, 1955 to 1999)State hospital patients fell from about 559,000 in 1955 to under 72,000 by 1994. Links to jails and homelessness are associations.Case 55 · Public programs · 1854 to 2024Foster care and child welfare law (United States, 1854 to 2024)Laws from 1980, 1997 and 2018 set removal and time-limit rules. About 329,000 children were in care in 2024, with large racial differences.Case 56 · Rights · 1969 to 2023Indian Child Welfare Act (United States, 1969 to 2023)Congress passed ICWA in 1978 after surveys of Indian child removals. The Court read it broadly in 1989, narrowly in 2013, and upheld it in 2023.Case 57 · Public programs · 1933 to 1968Redlining and the FHA (United States, 1933 to 1968 and after)Federal agencies graded neighborhoods and the FHA manual cited racial groups. Scholars disagree whether the maps or the rules drove lending and wealth gaps.Case 58 · Public programs · 1949 to 1974Urban renewal and highway clearance (United States, 1949 to 1974 and after)Federal housing and highway laws funded clearing neighborhoods. Displacement estimates range from 300,000 families to over a million people.Case 59 · Labor and land · 1938 to 2026Minimum wage (United States, 1938 to 2026)The 1938 federal minimum began at 25 cents and excluded farm work. Evidence on jobs and poverty is mixed, and state floors now differ widely.Case 60 · Labor and land · 1944 to 2024Right-to-work laws (United States, 1944 to 2024)Federal law lets states ban union-fee contracts. Twenty-six states do, wage evidence conflicts, and Janus reached public workers nationwide.Case 61 · Public programs · 1933 to 2023Tennessee Valley Authority (Tennessee Valley, 1933 to 2023)A 1933 federal power agency electrified a poor region but displaced families, excluded Black workers, took on debt, and caused the 2008 Kingston spill.Case 62 · Public programs · 1956 to todayInterstate Highway System (United States, 1956 to present)Congress paid 90 percent of a 41,000-mile highway network from fuel taxes. Cities lost homes, counts disagree, and revolts changed the rules.Case 63 · Public money · 1968 to todayNational Flood Insurance Program (United States, 1968 to present)Congress created flood insurance in 1968. The program owes the Treasury $22.5 billion, and experts split over subsidies, risk pricing and moral hazard.Case 64 · Public health · 1930s to todayAsbestos (United States, 1930s to present)Disease was reported early. Johns-Manville went bankrupt in 1982, a court cut back EPA's ban, and EPA banned only chrysotile uses in 2024.Case 65 · Public health · 1995 to 2026The Opioid Crisis (United States, 1995 to 2026)Federal data show overdose deaths rising from 25,785 in 2003 to 107,941 in 2022. Pleas, bankruptcy and settlements followed.Case 66 · Public programs · 1996 to 2026The 1996 Welfare Reform (United States, 1996 to 2026)The 1996 law ended the federal cash-aid entitlement for a state block grant and a 60-month limit. Caseloads halved, and the effects are disputed.Case 67 · Public integrity · 1976 to 2025Citizens United and SpeechNow (United States, 1976 to 2025)Courts in 2010 lifted limits on independent political spending but upheld disclosure. Billions in outside spending and wide opposition followed.Case 68 · Rights · 2000 to 2025Help America Vote Act (United States, 2000 to 2025)After the 2000 recount fight, Congress set federal voting minimums and funding. Access and security aims pulled apart.Case 69 · Environment · 1900 to 2025Tar Creek / Picher Superfund Site (Ottawa County, Oklahoma, 1900 to 2025)Mining left lead-laced chat piles and flooded mines. Buyouts moved families out, and EPA's 2025 review says cleanup is incomplete.Case 70 · Public money · 2025 to 2026PSO Electric Rates and Large-Load (Data Center) Cost Allocation (Oklahoma, 2025 to 2026)PSO sought a rate increase and $1.2 billion in new plants as data centers loomed. There is no final order and no cost-shift finding.Case 71 · Public health · 1908 to 1940Municipal water disinfection (United States, 1908 to 1940)Jersey City chlorinated its water in 1908 and typhoid deaths fell. Credit for wider health gains is disputed.

More cases are being researched. Cases not yet listed here are in the research queue.

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